Hindu Philosophical Schools

Samkhya is one of the oldest philosophical systems in Hinduism, founded by the sage Kapila. It presents a dualistic view of reality that distinguishes between two fundamental principles:

According to Samkhya, suffering arises when Purusha (consciousness) identifies with Prakriti (matter). Liberation occurs when one realizes the distinction between these two principles.

Yoga philosophy, systematized by Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras, builds upon Samkhya's metaphysical framework but adds a practical methodology for achieving spiritual liberation. While Samkhya is theoretical, Yoga is practical.

Unlike Samkhya, Yoga philosophy acknowledges Ishvara (God) as a special Purusha who is untouched by afflictions, karma, or the fruits of actions. Devotion to Ishvara (Ishvara Pranidhana) is one of the paths to samadhi.

Nyaya is the school of logic and epistemology in Hindu philosophy, founded by the sage Gautama (not to be confused with Gautama Buddha). It focuses on the means of acquiring valid knowledge and establishing criteria for logical proof.

Nyaya developed a sophisticated system of logic and debate, including a five-part syllogism (pancavayava vakya) that predates Aristotelian logic:

Unlike purely logical systems, Nyaya's ultimate goal is spiritual liberation through the removal of false knowledge. By understanding the nature of reality through valid means of knowledge, one can overcome ignorance and achieve moksha.

Vaisheshika is an ancient school of Hindu philosophy founded by the sage Kanada. It focuses on categorizing reality into fundamental elements and understanding their interactions. The name "Vaisheshika" comes from "Vishesha" or particularity, which is one of its key categories.

Vaisheshika is notable for its atomic theory (anu-vada), which proposes that all physical matter is composed of indivisible particles called anus (atoms). These atoms combine in various ways to form all material objects.

Later developments in Vaisheshika introduced the concept of a creator God (Ishvara) who is responsible for the initial motion of atoms and the creation of the world. This theistic element brought Vaisheshika closer to other orthodox schools.

Mimamsa, also known as Purva Mimamsa ("earlier investigation"), is primarily concerned with the correct interpretation of Vedic texts and the proper performance of Vedic rituals. Founded by Jaimini, it emphasizes dharma (righteous action) and ritual practice.

Unlike other schools, early Mimamsa was not concerned with liberation (moksha) but with the correct performance of ritual duties. It was originally non-theistic, focusing on the impersonal law of karma rather than a creator deity.

Later Mimamsa thinkers like Kumarila Bhatta and Prabhakara developed more comprehensive philosophical systems that addressed metaphysical questions and eventually incorporated theistic elements.

Vedanta, meaning "end of the Vedas," is based primarily on the teachings of the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. It is the most influential and widely followed school of Hindu philosophy today, with several important sub-schools.

Vedanta is not a single philosophy but a family of related interpretations of the Upanishads. The three most influential sub-schools are Advaita (non-dualism), Vishishtadvaita (qualified non-dualism), and Dvaita (dualism).

Each Vedanta sub-school provides commentaries on these three texts, offering different interpretations of the relationship between Brahman, Atman, and the world.

Advaita Vedanta, systematized by Adi Shankaracharya in the 8th century CE, is the most influential sub-school of Vedanta. "Advaita" means "non-dual," referring to the central teaching that Brahman (ultimate reality) and Atman (individual self) are one and the same.

Advaita's path to liberation involves discrimination (viveka) between the real and unreal, detachment (vairagya) from worldly objects, and direct realization of one's identity with Brahman. This realization is expressed in the mahavakyasGreat sayings from the Upanishads that express the unity of Atman and Brahman (great sayings) such as "Tat Tvam Asi" (That Thou Art) and "Aham Brahmasmi" (I am Brahman).

While Advaita's ultimate teaching is non-dualistic, Shankara acknowledged the practical value of devotion and ritual for purifying the mind. He developed a provisional theology that recognized Ishvara (God with attributes) as a lower expression of the attributeless Brahman.

Vishishtadvaita, or "qualified non-dualism," was systematized by Ramanuja in the 11th-12th century CE. This school offers a theistic interpretation of Vedanta that maintains the reality of individual souls and the material world while affirming their essential unity with Brahman.

According to Vishishtadvaita, individual souls (jivas) are real and distinct from Brahman, yet they share in Brahman's nature and are completely dependent on Brahman. This relationship is compared to that between the body and soul—distinct yet inseparably connected.

In Vishishtadvaita, liberation does not mean merging into Brahman but eternal communion with Brahman, where the soul retains its individuality while sharing in the bliss and consciousness of the divine.

Dvaita Vedanta, or "dualism," was systematized by Madhvacharya in the 13th century CE. This school maintains a strict distinction between God, individual souls, and matter, rejecting the non-dualistic interpretations of Advaita.

Madhva's philosophy is characterized by its emphasis on difference (bheda) rather than identity or unity. He rejected the idea that individual souls could become one with God, insisting that the distinction between them is eternal and unbridgeable.

Madhva's dualism stands in stark contrast to Shankara's non-dualism and offers a philosophical foundation for devotional theism. His teachings emphasize the glory and transcendence of God while affirming the reality and individuality of souls.